{"id":2138,"date":"2023-04-07T21:01:25","date_gmt":"2023-04-07T21:01:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/?p=2138"},"modified":"2026-07-02T19:45:53","modified_gmt":"2026-07-02T19:45:53","slug":"application-of-the-fourier-transform-to-the-analysis-of-vibration-signals","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/example\/application-of-the-fourier-transform-to-the-analysis-of-vibration-signals\/","title":{"rendered":"Application of the Fourier transform to the analysis of vibration signals."},"content":{"rendered":"

\u0c95\u0c82\u0caa\u0ca8 \u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c97\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3 \u0cb5\u0cbf\u0cb6\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cc7\u0cb7\u0ca3\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6 Fourier Transform \u0ca8 \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0cb5\u0caf<\/h1>\n

Andrei Shelkovenko. One of the developers and founder of Vibromera.
\nThe translation of the article may contain inaccuracies.<\/p>\n

Fourier transform and signal spectrum<\/h2>\n

\u0c85\u0ca8\u0cc7\u0c95 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0cad\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0caa\u0ca1\u0cc6\u0caf\u0cc1\u0cb5 (\u0cb2\u0cc6\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c95 \u0cb9\u0cbe\u0c95\u0cc1\u0cb5) \u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0caf spectrum<\/a> \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c97\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u200c\u0ca8 \u0cb9\u0cc0\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c87\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf ADC \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6; \u0c85\u0ca6\u0cc1 sampling \u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95 \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf<\/a> Fd, \u0cb8\u0cae\u0caf T \u0c85\u0cb5\u0ca7\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0c85\u0ca6\u0cb0 \u0c87\u0ca8\u0ccd\u200c\u0caa\u0cc1\u0c9f\u0ccd\u200c\u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cac\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 \u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cb0 \u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c97\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0ca1\u0cbf\u0c9c\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0cb2\u0ccd \u0cb8\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cbe\u0c82\u0caa\u0cb2\u0ccd\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf – N \u0ca4\u0cc1\u0ca3\u0cc1\u0c95\u0cc1\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0caa\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb5\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0ca8\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cb0 \u0c88 sample array \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0caf\u0cbe\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cbe\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc2 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ccb\u0c97\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0c82\u0c97\u0cc6 (\u0c89\u0ca6\u0cbe\u0cb9\u0cb0\u0ca3\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6 FourierScope<\/a><\/span>) which outputs N\/2 some numeric values.<\/p>\n

To check if the program works correctly, we form an array of samples as a sum of two sin(10*2*pi*x)+0.5*sin(5*2*pi*x) and feed it into the program. The program drew the following:
\n

\"Fourier

Fig.1 The graph of the time function of the signal<\/span><\/i><\/em><\/p><\/div><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.2

Fig.2 The graph of the signal spectrum<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u0c8e\u0cb0\u0ca1\u0cc1 \u0c87\u0cb5\u0cc6 harmonics<\/a> \u0cb8\u0ccd\u0caa\u0cc6\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cae\u0ccd \u0c97\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0cab\u0ccd\u200c\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf – 0.5 V \u0c86\u0c82\u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cc2\u0ca1\u0ccd\u200c\u0ca8 5 Hz \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 1 V \u0c86\u0c82\u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cc2\u0ca1\u0ccd\u200c\u0ca8 10 Hz; \u0c8e\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cb5\u0cc2 \u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb2 \u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c97\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd \u0cb8\u0cc2\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca6\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cc6\u0caf\u0cc7 \u0c87\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c8e\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cb5\u0cc2 \u0cb8\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0cc6; \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ccb\u0c97\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0c82 \u0cb8\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0c95\u0cc6\u0cb2\u0cb8 \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6.<\/p>\n

This means that if we feed a real signal from a mixture of two sinusoids to the ADC input, we will get a similar spectrum consisting of two harmonics.<\/p>\n

So, our real <\/span><\/b><\/strong>measured signal of 5 sec. duration<\/span><\/b><\/strong>, digitized by ADC, i.e. represented by discrete <\/span><\/b><\/strong>samples, has a discrete non-periodic <\/span><\/b><\/strong>spectrum.
\nFrom a mathematical point of view \u2013 how many errors in this phrase? <\/span><\/i><\/em><\/p>\n

Now let\u2019s try to measure the same signal for 0.5 sec.<\/p>\n

\"Fig.3

Fig.3 The graph of the function sin(10*2*pi*x)+0.5*sin(5*2*pi*x) for a measurement period of 0.5 sec<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.4

Fig.4 Spectrum of the function<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Something is wrong here! The harmonic at 10 Hz is drawn normally, and instead of the harmonic at 5 Hz there are some unclear harmonics.<\/p>\n

On the Internet they say that it is necessary to add zeros to the end of the sample and the spectrum will be drawn normally.<\/p>\n

\"Fig.5

Fig.5 We have added zeros to the sample up to 5 sec<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.6.

Fig.6. Spectrum obtained.<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

That\u2019s not it at all. I will have to deal with the theory. Let\u2019s go to wikipedia<\/b><\/strong><\/a><\/span>\u00a0\u2013 the source of knowledge.<\/p>\n

Continuous function and its Fourier series representation<\/h2>\n

Mathematically, our signal with duration of T seconds is some function f(x) given on the interval {0, T} (X in this case is time). Such a function can always be represented as a sum of harmonic functions (sine or cosine) of the form:<\/p>\n

\"Continuous

\u00a0(1), where:<\/p>\n

<\/p><\/div>\n

k is the number of the trigonometric function ( the number of the harmonic component, the number of the harmonic)
\nT \u2013 segment where the function is defined (the duration of the signal)
\nAk- amplitude of the k-th harmonic component,
\n\u03b8k- the initial phase of the kth harmonic component
\nWhat does it mean to \u201crepresent the function as the sum of the series\u201d? It means that by adding the values of the harmonic components of the Fourier series at each point, we get the value of our function at that point.
\n(More strictly, the mean square deviation of the series from the function f(x) will tend to zero, but despite the mean square convergence, the Fourier series of a function need not, generally speaking, converge to it point by point. )
\nThis series can also be written in the form:<\/p>\n

\"(2),\"

(2),<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

where \"Fourier , the kth complex amplitude.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u0c85\u0ca5\u0cb5\u0cbe<\/p>\n

\"

(3)<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

The relationship between the coefficients (1) and (3) is expressed by the following formulas:<\/p>\n

\"Formula<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fourier<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Fourier series\u200c\u0ca8 \u0c88 \u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb0\u0cc1 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0ca7\u0cbe\u0ca8\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc2 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0caa\u0cc2\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0ca3 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca8\u0cb5\u0cc6\u0c82\u0cac\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0c97\u0cae\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cbf. \u0c95\u0cc6\u0cb2\u0cb5\u0cca\u0cae\u0ccd\u0cae\u0cc6 Fourier series \u0c9c\u0cca\u0ca4\u0cc6 \u0c95\u0cc6\u0cb2\u0cb8 \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97 sine \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 cosine\u0c97\u0cb3 \u0cac\u0ca6\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cc6 imaginary argument\u200c\u0ca8 exponent\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cac\u0cb3\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1, \u0c85\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 complex form \u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf Fourier transform \u0cac\u0cb3\u0c95\u0cc6, \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cc1 \u0c85\u0ca8\u0cc1\u0c95\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95\u0cb0\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c86\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 \u0ca8\u0cae\u0c97\u0cc6 formula (1) \u0c85\u0ca8\u0cc1\u0c95\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95\u0cb0, \u0c8f\u0c95\u0cc6\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 \u0c85\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf Fourier series \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0c95\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca1 \u0c86\u0c82\u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cc2\u0ca1\u0ccd\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0c82\u0ca4\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cc6 cosine\u0c97\u0cb3 \u0cae\u0cca\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0ca4\u0ccb\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c95\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cc1\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0cb9\u0cc7\u0cb3\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cbe\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6, \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 real signal\u200c\u0ca8 Fourier transform \u0ca8\u0cbf\u0c9c\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cc2 complex coefficient\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 (form (3)) \u0c89\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0caa\u0cbe\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6: \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 coefficient \u0ca4\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8 harmonic\u200c\u0ca8 \u0c86\u0c82\u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cc2\u0ca1\u0ccd \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0c82\u0ca4 \u0c8e\u0cb0\u0ca1\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc2 \u0cb9\u0cca\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. real signal\u200c\u0c97\u0cc6 \u0c88 complex coefficient\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 conjugate (Hermitian) symmetry \u0cb9\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cb5\u0cc6 \u2014 negative-frequency \u0cad\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cb5\u0cc1 positive-frequency \u0cad\u0cbe\u0c97\u0ca6 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0cac\u0cbf\u0c82\u0cac \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0ccd\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cb0\u0cbf \u0cae\u0cbe\u0cb9\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0caf\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0ca8\u0cc0\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2. \u0c85\u0ca6\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c95\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cc7 complex coefficient\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6 \u0ca8\u0cbe\u0cb5\u0cc1 \u0caf\u0cbe\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cb2\u0cc2 formula (1) \u0caf\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 real non-negative amplitude\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 Ak \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 phase\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 \u03b8k \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0cb0\u0cb3\u0cac\u0cb9\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u2014 \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0cb5\u0cbf\u0cb6\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cc7\u0cb7\u0ca3\u0cbe \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ccb\u0c97\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0c82\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 \u0c9a\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0c87\u0ca6\u0cc7 amplitude spectrum.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Bottom line:<\/span><\/b><\/u><\/strong>
\n<\/span><\/b><\/strong>The mathematical basis for spectral analysis of signals is the Fourier transform.<\/span><\/b><\/strong>
\n<\/span><\/b><\/strong>
\n<\/span><\/b><\/strong>The Fourier transform allows to represent a continuous function f(x) (signal) defined on the interval {0, T} as a sum of infinite number (infinite series) of trigonometric functions (sine and\/ or cosine) with definite amplitudes and phases also considered on the interval {0, T}. Such series is called a Fourier series.<\/span><\/b><\/strong><\/p>\n

Note some more points, the understanding of which is required for correct application of the Fourier transform to signal analysis. If we consider the Fourier series (sum of sinusoids) on the entire X-axis we will see that outside the interval {0, T} the Fourier series function will periodically repeat our function.<\/p>\n

For example, in the graph in Fig. 7, the original function is defined on the interval {-T\\2, +T\\2}, and the Fourier series represents a periodic function defined on the entire x-axis.<\/p>\n

This is because the sinusoids themselves are periodic functions, so their sum will also be a periodic function.<\/p>\n

\"Figure

Figure 7 Representation of a non-periodic source function by a Fourier series<\/p><\/div>\n

Thus:<\/p>\n

Our original function is a continuous, non-periodic function defined on some segment of length T.
\nThe spectrum of this function is discrete, i.e. it is represented as an infinite series of harmonic components \u2013 a Fourier series.
\nIn fact, Fourier series defines some periodic function, which coincides with our function on the interval {0, T}, but for us this periodicity is not essential.<\/p>\n

Next.<\/p>\n

The periods of harmonic components are multiples of the interval {0, T}, on which the initial function f(x) is defined. In other words, the periods of harmonics are multiples of the duration of the signal measurement. For example, the period of the first harmonic in a Fourier series is equal to the interval T in which the function f(x) is defined. The period of the second harmonic in a Fourier series is equal to the interval T\/2. And so on (see Figure 8).<\/p>\n

\"Fig.

Fig. 8 Periods (frequencies) of harmonic components of the Fourier series (here T=2\u03c0)<\/p><\/div>\n

Accordingly, the frequencies of harmonic components are multiples of 1\/T. That is, frequencies of harmonic components Fk are Fk= k\\T, where k runs values from 0 to \u221e, for example, k=0 F0=0; k=1 F1=1\\T; k=2 F2=2\\T;k=3 F3=3\\T;\u2026. Fk= k\\T (at zero frequency, a constant component).<\/p>\n

Let our initial function, is a signal recorded during T=1 sec. Then the period of the first harmonic will be equal to the duration of our signal T1=T=1 sec and the frequency of the harmonic is equal to 1 Hz. The period of the second harmonic will be equal to the duration of our signal divided by 2 (T2=T\/2=0.5 sec.) and the frequency is equal to 2 Hz. For the third harmonic, T3=T\/3 sec and the frequency is 3 Hz. And so on.<\/p>\n

The step between harmonics in this case is 1 Hz.<\/p>\n

Thus, a signal with a duration of 1 sec can be decomposed into harmonic components (to obtain a spectrum) with a frequency resolution of 1 Hz.
\nresolution \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 2 \u0caa\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cbf 0.5 Hz \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cb2\u0cc1, \u0cae\u0cbe\u0caa\u0ca8\u0ca6 \u0c85\u0cb5\u0ca7\u0cbf\u0caf\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 2 \u0caa\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cbf 2 sec \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cac\u0cc7\u0c95\u0cc1. 10-second \u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c97\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 0.1 Hz frequency resolution \u0c9c\u0cca\u0ca4\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6 harmonic components (spectrum) \u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0cb5\u0cbf\u0cad\u0c9c\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cac\u0cb9\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1. frequency resolution \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cc1 \u0c87\u0ca4\u0cb0\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0c97\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2. \u0c88 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0cac\u0c82\u0ca7\u0cb5\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0ca8\u0cae\u0ccd\u0cae FFT Resolution Calculator<\/a>.<\/p>\n

There is a way to artificially increase the signal duration by adding zeros to the array of samples. But it does not increase the real frequency resolution.<\/p>\n

Discrete signal\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 discrete Fourier transform<\/h2>\n

With the development of digital technology the ways of measurement data (signals) storage have changed. Whereas previously a signal could be recorded on a tape recorder and stored on a tape in analog form, now signals are digitized and stored in files in computer memory as a set of numbers (counts).<\/p>\n

The usual scheme of signal measurement and digitization looks as follows.<\/p>\n

Measuring transducer \u2014- Signal normalizer \u2014- ADC \u2014\u2013 Computer
\n(Fig.9 Schematic of the measuring channel)<\/p>\n

<\/span><\/i><\/em><\/p>\n

The signal from the measuring transducer goes to the ADC for a period of time T. The signal readings (sampling) received during time T are transmitted to the computer and saved in the memory.<\/p>\n

\"Fig.10

Fig.10 Digitized signal \u2013 N samples received for time T<\/p><\/div>\n

What are the requirements to signal digitization parameters? A device which converts the input analog signal into a discrete code (digital signal) is called an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) (\u00a9 Wiki).<\/p>\n

One of the basic parameters of ADC is the maximum sampling rate \u2013 the frequency of sampling of a signal which is continuous in time. Sample rate is measured in hertz. ((\u00a9 Wiki))<\/p>\n

Kotelnikov theorem \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0, \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cb0 signal \u0c97\u0cc6 Fmax \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0cb5\u0cb0\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0ca6 spectrum \u0c87\u0ca6\u0ccd\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6, \u0cb8\u0cae\u0caf \u0c85\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cb0\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cc1 \u0394t \u2264 1\/(2*Fmax) \u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0ca4\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6\u0ca6 \u0c85\u0ca6\u0cb0 discrete sample\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6 \u0c85\u0ca6\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0caa\u0cc2\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0ca3\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0c8f\u0c95\u0cc8\u0c95\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0caa\u0cc1\u0ca8\u0cb0\u0ccd\u200c\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0cae\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cac\u0cb9\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1, \u0c85\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 sampling frequency Fd \u2265 2*Fmax \u0c86\u0c97\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cac\u0cc7\u0c95\u0cc1; \u0c87\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf Fd – sampling frequency; Fmax – signal spectrum\u200c\u0ca8 \u0c97\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb7\u0ccd\u0ca0 \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf. \u0cac\u0cc7\u0cb0\u0cc6 \u0caa\u0ca6\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0cb9\u0cc7\u0cb3\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cbe\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6, \u0ca8\u0cbe\u0cb5\u0cc1 \u0c85\u0cb3\u0cc6\u0caf\u0cac\u0cc7\u0c95\u0cbe\u0ca6 signal\u200c\u0ca8 \u0c97\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb7\u0ccd\u0ca0 \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca4 signal digitization frequency (ADC sampling frequency) \u0c95\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb7\u0ccd\u0ca0 \u0c8e\u0cb0\u0ca1\u0cc1 \u0caa\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cc1 \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cac\u0cc7\u0c95\u0cc1.<\/p>\n

And what will happen if we take samples with lower frequency than required by Kotelnikov\u2019s theorem?<\/p>\n

\u0c88 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0cad\u0ca6\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 “\u0c85\u0cb2\u0cbf\u0caf\u0cbe\u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c82\u0c97\u0ccd<\/a>In this case there is an \u201caliasing\u201d effect (aka stroboscopic effect, moir\u00e9 effect), in which a high frequency signal after digitization turns into a low frequency signal, which in fact does not exist. In Fig. 11 the red sine wave of high frequency is the real signal. The blue sine wave of lower frequency is a fictitious signal, arising due to the fact that during the sampling time has time to pass more than half a period of the high-frequency signal.<\/p>\n

\"Fig.

Fig. 11. Appearance of a spurious low frequency signal at an insufficiently high sampling rate<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

aliasing \u0caa\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0ca3\u0cbe\u0cae\u0cb5\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0ca4\u0caa\u0ccd\u0caa\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cc1, \u0cb5\u0cbf\u0cb6\u0cc7\u0cb7 anti-alias filter (\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cae\u0ccd\u0ca8-\u0caa\u0cbe\u0cb8\u0ccd \u0cab\u0cbf\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0cb0\u0ccd<\/a>) \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 ADC \u0cae\u0cc1\u0c82\u0c9a\u0cc6 \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c87\u0ca6\u0cc1 ADC sampling frequency \u0caf \u0c85\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0ca7\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c95\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca4 \u0c95\u0ca1\u0cbf\u0cae\u0cc6 \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cb3\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cbe\u0ca6\u0cc1\u0cb9\u0ccb\u0c97\u0cb2\u0cc1 \u0cac\u0cbf\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cbf\u0ca8 \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cb3\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0c95\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6.<\/p>\n

\u0c85\u0ca6\u0cb0 discrete sample\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6 signal spectrum \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb2\u0cc6\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c95 \u0cb9\u0cbe\u0c95\u0cb2\u0cc1 discrete Fourier transform (DFT)<\/a> \u0cac\u0cb3\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc6 \u0c97\u0cae\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cbf: discrete signal\u200c\u0ca8 spectrum, “\u0cb5\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cbe\u0c96\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cbe\u0ca8\u0ca6 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0”, sampling frequency Fd \u0caf \u0c85\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0ca7\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c95\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca4 \u0c95\u0ca1\u0cbf\u0cae\u0cc6 \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 Fmax \u0c86\u0cb5\u0cc3\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c86\u0ca6\u0ccd\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6 discrete signal\u200c\u0ca8 spectrum \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 a finite <\/u>number of harmonics, in contrast to the infinite sum for the Fourier series of a continuous signal, whose spectrum can be unlimited. According to Kotelnikov\u2019s theorem, the maximum frequency of a harmonic must be such that it accounts for at least two samples, so the number of harmonics is equal to half the number of samples of a discrete signal. That is, if there are N samples in the sample, the number of harmonics in the spectrum will be N\/2.<\/p>\n

Consider now the discrete Fourier transform (DFT).<\/p>\n

\"Discrete<\/p>\n

Comparing it with the Fourier series<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Discrete<\/p>\n

As we can see, they coincide, except for the fact that time in the FFT is discrete and the number of harmonics is limited to N\/2, which is half the number of samples.<\/p>\n

DFT formulas are written in dimensionless integer variables k, s, where k is the number of signal samples, s is the number of spectral components.
\nThe value s shows the number of full harmonic oscillations per period T (signal measurement duration). The discrete Fourier transform is used to find the amplitudes and phases of harmonics numerically, i.e. \u201con the computer\u201d.<\/p>\n

As it was already said above, when decomposing a non-periodic function (our signal) into Fourier series, the resulting Fourier series actually corresponds to a periodic function with period T (Fig.12).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.12.

Fig.12. Periodic function f(x) with period T0, with period T>T0<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Fig. 12 \u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0c95\u0cbe\u0ca3\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cc6, f(x) \u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cb5\u0cc1 T0 \u0c85\u0cb5\u0ca7\u0cbf\u0caf periodic function \u0c86\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c86\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 measuring sample\u200c\u0ca8 \u0c89\u0ca6\u0ccd\u0ca6 T, function period T0 \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0ca8\u0cbe\u0c97\u0ca6 \u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ca3 Fourier series \u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95 \u0ca6\u0cca\u0cb0\u0c95\u0cc1\u0cb5 \u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cb5\u0cc1 T \u0cac\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cbf\u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf discontinuity \u0cb9\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0caa\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0ca3\u0cbe\u0cae\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0c88 \u0c95\u0cbe\u0cb0\u0ccd\u0caf\u0ca6 spectrum \u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cbf\u0ca8 \u0cb8\u0c82\u0c96\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cc6\u0caf high-frequency harmonics \u0c95\u0cbe\u0ca3\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cbf\u0c95\u0cca\u0cb3\u0ccd\u0cb3\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cb5\u0cc6. \u0c88 \u0c98\u0c9f\u0ca8\u0cc6\u0caf\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb8\u0ccd\u0caa\u0cc6\u0c95\u0ccd\u0c9f\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cb2\u0ccd \u0cb8\u0ccb\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cbf\u0c95\u0cc6<\/a>, \u0c8e\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0c95\u0cb0\u0cc6\u0caf\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6; \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0caf\u0ccb\u0c97\u0cbf\u0c95\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0c87\u0ca6\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0cb5\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca1\u0ccb\u0caf\u0cbf\u0c82\u0c97\u0ccd<\/a> transform \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0cb5 \u0cae\u0cca\u0ca6\u0cb2\u0cc1 signal \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0cb5\u0caf\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cc1\u0cb5 \u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95 \u0c95\u0ca1\u0cbf\u0cae\u0cc6 \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. measuring sample \u0c85\u0cb5\u0ca7\u0cbf T, function period T0 \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0ca8\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0ccd\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 Fourier transform \u0ca8\u0c82\u0ca4\u0cb0 \u0ca6\u0cca\u0cb0\u0c95\u0cc1\u0cb5 spectrum \u0ca8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf \u0cae\u0cca\u0ca6\u0cb2 harmonic \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0cb0 \u0c87\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 (sample duration \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0ca8\u0cbe\u0ca6 \u0c85\u0cb5\u0ca7\u0cbf\u0caf sine wave), \u0c8f\u0c95\u0cc6\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 f(x) \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc1 sinusoid \u0c86\u0c97\u0cbf\u0ca6\u0cc6.<\/p>\n

In other words, the DFT program \u201cdoes not know\u201d that our signal is a \u201cslice of a sine wave\u201d, but tries to represent as a series a periodic function which has a discontinuity due to the discontinuity of separate pieces of the sine wave.<\/p>\n

As a result, harmonics appear in the spectrum, which should, in total, represent the shape of the function, including this discontinuity.<\/p>\n

Thus, to get a \u201ccorrect\u201d spectrum of a signal which is a sum of several sinusoids with different periods, it is necessary that an integer number of periods of <\/u>each sinusoid should be present on the measuring period of the signal. In practice, this condition can be met with a sufficiently long duration of signal measurement.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.13

Fig.13 Example of the kinematic error signal function and spectrum of a gearbox<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

At shorter duration the picture will look \u201cworse\u201d:<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\"Fig.14

Fig.14 Example of rotor vibration function and spectrum<\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

In practice, it can be difficult to understand where the \u201creal components\u201d and where the \u201cartifacts\u201d caused by inconsistency of component periods and signal sampling durations or \u201cjumps and breaks\u201d in the waveform. Of course, the words \u201creal components\u201d and \u201cartifacts\u201d are put in quotes for a reason. The presence of many harmonics on the spectrum graph does not mean that our signal actually consists of them. It is like thinking that number 7 \u201cconsists\u201d of numbers 3 and 4. The number 7 can be thought of as the sum of 3 and 4 \u2013 that is correct.<\/p>\n

So also our signal\u2026 or rather not even \u201cour signal\u201d, but a periodic function composed by repeating our signal (sample) can be represented as a sum of harmonics (sine waves) with certain amplitudes and phases. But in many cases important for practice (see figures above) it is indeed possible to relate the harmonics obtained in the spectrum also to real processes having cyclic character and contributing significantly to the form of the signal.<\/p>\n

Some results<\/h2>\n

1. A real measured signal with T sec. duration digitized by ADC, i.e. represented by a set of discrete samples (N pieces), has a discrete non-periodic spectrum represented by a set of harmonics (N\/2 pieces).<\/p>\n

2. signal \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 real value\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb9\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0ca7\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6. \u0c85\u0ca6\u0cb0 DFT spectrum conjugate symmetry \u0cb9\u0cca\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 complex coefficient\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb9\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6; \u0c85\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0c82\u0ca6 amplitude spectrum \u0c85\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0cc1 \u0caa\u0ca1\u0cc6\u0caf\u0cb2\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cc1\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0ca6\u0cc6 \u2014 \u0c85\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cb0\u0cc6 positive frequency\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0cb2\u0cbf real non-negative amplitude\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3 (\u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 phase\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3) \u0cb8\u0cae\u0cc2\u0cb9, \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbe\u0caf\u0ccb\u0c97\u0cbf\u0c95\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf \u0c9a\u0cbf\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0cbf\u0cb8\u0cb2\u0ccd\u0caa\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc1 \u0c87\u0ca6\u0cc7 one-sided amplitude spectrum. negative frequency\u200c\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbf\u0cb0\u0cc1\u0cb5 two-sided complex form \u0cae\u0ca4\u0ccd\u0ca4\u0cc1 one-sided amplitude\/phase form \u0c92\u0c82\u0ca6\u0cc7 spectrum\u200c\u0ca8 \u0cb8\u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca8 \u0caa\u0ccd\u0cb0\u0ca4\u0cbf\u0ca8\u0cbf\u0ca7\u0cbe\u0ca8\u0c97\u0cb3\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf\u0cb5\u0cc6 \u2014 signal analysis \u0c97\u0cc6 \u0cb8\u0cbe\u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0caf\u0cb5\u0cbe\u0c97\u0cbf one-sided amplitude spectrum \u0c9c\u0cca\u0ca4\u0cc6\u0c97\u0cc6 \u0c95\u0cc6\u0cb2\u0cb8 \u0cae\u0cbe\u0ca1\u0cc1\u0cb5\u0cc1\u0ca6\u0cc7 \u0cb9\u0cc6\u0c9a\u0ccd\u0c9a\u0cc1 \u0c85\u0ca8\u0cc1\u0c95\u0cc2\u0cb2\u0c95\u0cb0.<\/p>\n

3. The signal measured at time T is determined only at time T. What happened before we started measuring the signal and what will happen after that is unknown to science. And in our case it is not interesting. FFT of the time-limited signal gives its \u201creal\u201d spectrum, in the sense that under certain conditions it allows to calculate the amplitude and frequency of its components.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Application of the Fourier Transform to the Analysis of Vibration Signals Andrei Shelkovenko. One of the developers and founder of Vibromera. The translation of the article may contain inaccuracies. Fourier transform and signal spectrum In many cases the task of obtaining (calculating) the spectrum of a signal is as follows. […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":2161,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"ai_generated_summary":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[4],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2138","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-example"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2138","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2138"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2138\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":102137,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2138\/revisions\/102137"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2161"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2138"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2138"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/vibromera.eu\/kn\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2138"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}