定義:什麼是諧波?

在振動分析中, 諧波 是基頻精確整數倍的頻率。在旋轉機械中,基頻通常為軸旋轉速度,稱為第 1 諧波或 。後續諧波為整數倍:2×(軸速兩倍)、3×(三倍),依此類推。這些頻率也稱為 運轉速度階數同步諧波 因為它們與軸旋轉精確同步。

例如,若馬達運轉於 1,800 RPM(30 Hz),其諧波將出現在 60 Hz(2×)、90 Hz(3×)、120 Hz(4×)、150 Hz(5×)等。諧波序列在理論上是無限的,但實際上,高階諧波的振幅會減小,僅前幾個諧波具有診斷資訊。

諧波頻率定義
fn = n × f1 = n × (RPM / 60)
其中 n = 1, 2, 3, 4…(諧波階數),f₁ = 軸旋轉頻率(Hz)

諧波與次諧波及非同步峰值的區別

諧波 是軸速的整數倍(2×, 3×, 4×…)。 次諧波 是分數倍(½×, ⅓×, ¼×),且總表示嚴重的機械問題。 非同步峰值 是與軸速無關的頻率 — 例如 軸承故障頻率、齒輪嚙合頻率、電源頻率(50/60 Hz)或 自然頻率 — 需要不同的診斷方法。3.57× RPM 處的峰值並非諧波;它很可能是軸承故障頻率。

為何會產生諧波?

在一個由純正弦力激振的完美線性系統中(例如在完美軸承中完美平衡、完美對中的轉子),只會出現 1× 基頻。實際機械從非完美線性。只要振動波形偏離純正弦波——只要系統響應是 非線性 或激振函數本身非正弦波,就會出現諧波。

數學基礎:傅立葉定理

傅立葉定理 指出任何週期性波形——無論多麼複雜——都可以分解為基頻及其整數倍頻率正弦波的總和,每個頻率具有特定的振幅和相位。振動分析儀使用的 FFT(快速傅立葉變換)演算法在計算上執行此分解,揭示信號的諧波成分。

純正弦波僅含單一頻率成分。方波包含所有奇次諧波(1×、3×、5×、7×…),振幅隨 1/n 遞減。鋸齒波包含所有諧波,振幅隨 1/n 遞減。畸變的特定形狀決定了哪些諧波會出現——這正是諧波分析在診斷上如此強大的原因。

產生諧波的物理機制

  • 波形削波/截斷: 當軸運動受到物理限制(軸承座、摩擦接觸)時,產生的波形會被削波,從而產生諧波。削波越嚴重,產生的諧波越多。
  • 非對稱剛性: 如果系統剛性在振動週期的正負半週之間不同(裂紋軸的開合、不對心產生不同的拉壓剛性),則會產生偶次諧波(2×、4×、6×)。
  • 衝擊事件: 週期性衝擊(鬆動螺栓、軸承缺陷衝擊)會產生尖銳、短時長的波形,諧波成分極其豐富——就像鼓棒產生許多泛音一樣。
  • 非線性恢復力: 當剛性隨位移變化時(承受變載荷的軸承、漸進式橡膠減振墊),對正弦力的響應會包含諧波。
  • 參數激振: 當系統屬性以與軸速相關的頻率週期性變化時,它們可能產生激振頻率的諧波和次諧波。
關鍵診斷原理

哪些諧波存在、它們的相對振幅以及哪些諧波缺失的模式,告訴分析師是哪種物理機制產生了非線性。經驗豐富的分析師會檢查頻譜的完整諧波結構——而不僅僅是整體振動水平——以識別特定的故障機制。

詳細故障特徵——諧波模式

1× 主導——不平衡

1× 處的主導峰值伴隨極少的高次諧波,是 質量不平衡的典型特徵。不平衡力本質上是正弦的(它以 1× 頻率隨軸旋轉),在頻域中產生清晰的單一峰值。

診斷細節

  • 振幅: 與速度² 成正比(速度加倍 → 振幅 4×)且與不平衡質量成正比
  • 相位: 穩定、可重複、單值。隨試重添加而可預測地變化——這是所有 動平衡校正程序
  • 方向: Primarily radial; axial 1× is low unless rotor has significant overhang
  • 確認: 試重響應確認不平衡。若 1× 對試重無響應,請考慮軸彎曲、偏心或共振
並非所有 1× 振動都是不平衡

幾種狀況會產生無法透過動平衡校正的高 1× 振動:軸彎曲、軸偏心、接近感測器的電氣偏擺、熱效應引起的轉子彎曲、聯軸器偏心以及 共振 共振放大。在嘗試動平衡校正前,務必驗證診斷結果。

2× 主導——不對心

強烈的二次諧波,其振幅通常與 1× 峰值相當或超過 1× 峰值,是 軸不對心. Misalignment forces the shaft through a non-sinusoidal path during each revolution, creating the distortion that generates 2× and sometimes higher harmonics.

的主要指標。不對心迫使軸在每轉中沿非正弦路徑運動,產生導致 2× 及有時更高次諧波的畸變。

  • 角度不對心: 軸中心線在聯軸器處以一定角度相交。產生高 1× 軸向振動。聯軸器兩側的相位在軸向方向顯示約 180° 的相位差。
  • 平行(偏移)不對心: 軸中心線平行但偏移。產生高 2× 徑向振動,通常 2× ≥ 1×。嚴重情況會產生 3× 和 4×。聯軸器兩側的徑向相位顯示約 180° 的相位差。
  • 組合: 在實際中,兩者通常共存,產生混合的特徵。

2×/1× 比率作為診斷指標

2×/1× 比率 可能狀況 措施
< 0.25 正常;大多數機械中 2× 以低水平存在 無需採取措施
0.25 – 0.50 可能存在輕微不對心;某些聯軸器類型屬正常現象 檢查對中;與基線比較
0.50 – 1.00 Significant misalignment probable Perform precision laser alignment
> 1.00 Severe misalignment; 2× exceeds 1× Urgent — realign; check coupling and pipe strain

Multiple Harmonics — Mechanical Looseness

豐富的 運轉轉速 諧波(1×、2×、3×、4×、5×… 至 10× 或更高)表示 機械鬆動. The impacts, rattling, and non-linear contact/separation cycles generate extreme waveform distortion that decomposes into many harmonic components.

Three Types of Looseness

  • Type A — Structural: Loose machine-to-foundation connection (soft foot, cracked base, loose anchor bolts). Produces directional 1× (higher in the loose direction). Key test: tighten/loosen individual bolts while monitoring 1× amplitude.
  • Type B — Component: 軸承蓋內襯套鬆動、軸承蓋與軸承座鬆動、軸承游隙過大。產生諧波族,常伴隨次諧波(½×)。次諧波是區分鬆動與不對心的關鍵(鬆動會產生次諧波,不對心則不會)。
  • Type C — Bearing seat: Loose impeller on shaft, loose coupling hub, excessive bearing clearance allowing rotor to bounce. Produces many harmonics with broadband noise floor elevation.
Sub-Harmonics: The Looseness Fingerprint

次諧波(½×、⅓×)的存在是區分鬆動與不對心最可靠的指標。不對心會產生 2× 與 3×,但極少產生次諧波。鬆動(B 型與 C 型)特徵性地產生 ½×,因為轉子在半圈時接觸軸承一側,下一半圈彈跳至另一側——形成每兩轉重複一次的圖案,故為 ½×。

Other Harmonic-Generating Conditions

軸彎曲

產生 1× 與 2× 振動,並伴隨高軸向分量。與不對心不同, 軸彎曲 顯示的 1× 無法透過動平衡校正(屬幾何偏心,非質量分佈問題),且軸兩端軸向相位差約 180°。2× 則源於轉子旋轉時彎曲開合所導致的非對稱剛性。

Reciprocating Machinery

Engines, compressors, and reciprocating machines inherently generate rich harmonic spectra because piston/crankshaft motion is fundamentally non-sinusoidal. The harmonic pattern depends on cylinder count, firing order, and stroke type (2-stroke vs. 4-stroke).

轉子摩擦

A partial rub (contact for a portion of each revolution) produces many high-order harmonics — sometimes to 10×, 20×, or more. A full annular rub (continuous 360° contact) generates dominant sub-harmonics (½×, ⅓×, ¼×) through reverse precession mechanisms.

Electrical Issues in Motors

交流馬達會產生線頻率(50 或 60 Hz)倍數的振動,與軸轉速無關。最常見的是 2 倍線頻率(50 Hz 系統為 100 Hz,60 Hz 系統為 120 Hz)。這並非軸轉速的諧波,而是線頻率的諧波,此為區分電氣與機械振動的关键。 power cut test is definitive: electrical vibration drops instantly when power is removed, mechanical vibration persists during coast-down.

轉子條缺陷會在 1× 周圍產生邊帶,間距為極通過頻率(滑差頻率 × 極數)。這些邊帶非常接近 1×(相差 1–5 Hz),需高解析度 縮放 FFT 分析才能解析。

Non-Synchronous Frequencies — Not True Harmonics

Several important frequencies are sometimes confused with harmonics but are actually independent of shaft speed:

Frequency Type 公式 Relationship to RPM 備註
軸承故障頻率 BPFO、BPFI、BSF、FTF Non-integer multiples (e.g. 3.57×, 5.43×) 始終為非同步;取決於軸承幾何結構
齒輪嚙合頻率 GMF = #teeth × RPM Integer but very high order Technically a harmonic but analyzed separately
葉片/導葉通過頻率 BPF = #blades × RPM Integer multiple Normal; excessive amplitude indicates problem
Line frequency FL = 50 or 60 Hz Not related to RPM Electrical; disappears on power cut
自然頻率 fn = √(k/m)/2π Fixed; not related to RPM Constant frequency regardless of speed changes
Belt frequencies fbelt = RPM×π×D/L Sub-synchronous (< shaft speed) Belt frequency and its harmonics 2×, 3×, 4× BF

Analysis Guide — How to Interpret Harmonic Patterns

Step 1: Identify the Fundamental (1×)

找出對應軸轉速的 1× 峰值。使用 轉速計 或馬達銘牌進行驗證。在變速機械中,每次測量都必須精確識別 1×。

Step 2: Catalog All Peaks

For each significant peak, determine: is it an exact integer multiple of 1× (true harmonic)? A fractional multiple (sub-harmonic)? Unrelated to shaft speed (non-synchronous)? Use analyzer harmonic cursor features for efficiency.

Step 3: Examine the Amplitude Pattern

  • Which harmonic is dominant? → Points to specific fault
  • How many harmonics are present? → More = more severe distortion
  • Does 2× exceed 1×? → Likely misalignment
  • 是否存在次諧波?→ 鬆動、摩擦或 油膜渦動
  • Is amplitude decreasing with order (1/n decay)? → Typical for looseness

Step 4: Check Directionality

  • High radial, low axial: Unbalance or looseness
  • High axial: Misalignment (especially angular) or bent shaft
  • Directional radial: Structural looseness (higher in loose direction)

Step 5: Trend Over Time

  • Are harmonic amplitudes increasing? → Fault is progressing
  • Are new harmonics appearing? → New fault mechanism developing
  • Is the noise floor rising? → General wear or late-stage failure

Step 6: Correlate with Phase Data

  • 不平衡: 1× phase is stable and repeatable
  • 不對心: 1× or 2× phase shows ~180° across coupling
  • 鬆動: Phase is unstable, may shift randomly between measurements

實務上,這六個步驟均可在現場使用便攜式雙通道儀器(如 Balanset-1A)完成:安裝加速規,在機器運轉時擷取頻譜與 1× 相位,並直接對照上述診斷表讀取諧波模式——隨後無需拆卸轉子即可校正殘餘不平衡。

Case Studies — Real-World Harmonic Analysis

Case 1: Motor-Pump — Is it Unbalance or Misalignment?

機器: 30 kW motor driving centrifugal pump at 2960 RPM via flexible coupling. Overall vibration: 6.2 mm/s at motor drive-end bearing.

頻譜: 1× = 4.1 mm/s, 2× = 3.8 mm/s, 3× = 1.2 mm/s. The 2×/1× ratio = 0.93.

方向: High radial 2× at both drive-end bearings. Axial 1× at coupling: motor = 2.8 mm/s, pump = 3.1 mm/s with 165° phase difference.

診斷: Combined angular and parallel misalignment. The 2×/1× ratio approaching 1.0, high axial readings, and ~180° phase across coupling all confirm. NOT unbalance — even though 1× is elevated, the 2× pattern is the real story.

處置: Laser alignment performed. Post-alignment: 1× = 0.8 mm/s, 2× = 0.3 mm/s. Overall dropped to 1.1 mm/s — an 82% reduction.

案例 2:風機 — 為何動平衡校正無效?

機器: Centrifugal fan at 1480 RPM. Vibration: 8.5 mm/s. Previous balancing attempt reduced 1× but overall vibration remained high.

頻譜: 1× = 2.1 mm/s (low after balancing), ½× = 1.8 mm/s, 2× = 3.2 mm/s, 3× = 2.5 mm/s, 4× = 1.8 mm/s, 5× = 1.1 mm/s, 6× = 0.7 mm/s.

診斷: 機械鬆動(B 型)。伴隨 ½× 次諧波的諧波族為其特徵。動平衡校正已修正 1×,但無法消除主導整體振動的鬆動諧波。

處置: Inspection revealed bearing housing 0.08 mm loose in pedestal bore. Housing rebored and new bearing fitted. Post-repair: all harmonics dropped to baseline. Overall: 1.4 mm/s.

Case 3: Compressor Motor — Electrical or Mechanical?

機器: 4-pole, 50 Hz induction motor at 1485 RPM driving a screw compressor. Vibration increased from 2.0 to 5.5 mm/s over 3 months.

頻譜: Dominant peak at 100 Hz (= 2FL). Also: 1× at 24.75 Hz = 1.2 mm/s, sidebands around 1× at ±1.0 Hz spacing.

Key Test: Power cut — the 100 Hz peak dropped to zero within one revolution. The 1× sidebands persisted during coast-down.

診斷: Two problems: (1) Electrical — stator eccentricity causing 2FL. (2) Mechanical — 1× sidebands at ±1.0 Hz (= pole pass frequency for 4-pole motor with 1.0% slip) suggest developing rotor bar defect.

處置: Motor sent for rewind. Confirmed: 2 broken rotor bars + stator eccentricity from base sag. After rewind and shimming: vibration 1.6 mm/s.

Vibromera Equipment for Harmonic Analysis

The Balanset-1ABalanset-4 provide real-time FFT spectrum analysis with harmonic cursor tracking, enabling field identification of 1×, 2×, 3× patterns and fault diagnosis. The devices combine vibration analysis for diagnostics and precision 動平衡校正 for correction — identifying the problem and fixing it with one instrument.


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